Alex Muck, Armine Mkrtchyan, Gagik Hovhannisyan, Fiona Choi, Sara Ohannessian
Language endangerment is an important yet relatively unknown threat in our world today. As the world continues to become more globalized, languages not spoken by the majority run the risk of dying out due to people adopting languages that are more widely spoken. This study focuses on how the speakers of minority languages, such as Hebrew and Armenian, view their language and its relation to their culture to assess the risk these languages face of being replaced or going extinct. Evidence was gathered from one-on-one interviews with native speakers of the language. These interviews shed light on the central themes surrounding the usage of these languages, primarily that they are important anchors for diasporic communities to connect more closely with their heritage, rather than just being used for communication. Based on our findings, we tried to understand how languages that face endangerment may be preserved so that the cultures that rely on them do not suffer from their loss.
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Introduction and Background
Language endangerment and language shift are concepts that grow increasingly important to understand as our world grows increasingly globalized (Bradley, 2023). Language endangerment is generally defined as a reduction in the usage of a language. This phenomenon can have many causes, such as language shift, which is when a new language is adopted to be used instead of a native language (Tsunoda, 2006). Two languages that are of particular interest to our own experiences and cultures are Hebrew and Armenian, both of which face language endangerment today. Through our data collection, we seek to answer: What factors contribute to the endangerment of languages or can cause them to shift to usage of other languages? How has historical and socio-political change impacted the status of these languages? What can be done now to ensure languages are preserved for the future?
Methods
Our data was gathered through 20-30 minute, one-on-one interviews conducted with either Hebrew or Armenian speakers. Our questions focused on assessing: the individual’s proficiency with the language; how they learned the language; the contexts in which they use the language; their familial and cultural background in relation to the language; their personal views about the language and what it means to them; and their thoughts on transmitting the language to future generations.
Results and Analysis
Armenian
The Armenian language serves as a vital channel for preserving and transmitting the rich cultural heritage of the Armenian community. This is especially important for a globally dispersed diaspora aiming to retain a unified cultural identity despite physical distances. The language is a symbol of resistance and survival, reflecting the community’s determination to keep their culture vibrant across generations and geographies.
Context of Language Use
The use of the language is mostly confined to the home and events such as weddings or family functions. Respondents mentioned how they had no other choice but to speak Armenian in cultural settings, emphasizing its role in maintaining cultural and familial bonds. There are specific contexts, such as speaking with grandparents or in public settings, where the language is exclusively used. Because most speakers are immigrants from the Armenian Diaspora who only speak Armenian, they constantly influence those around them with the language’s use.
Family Background and Historical Influence
The Armenian language is an ancestral language passed down through generations. One respondent noted that her family’s history of moving from country to country has heavily influenced her relationship with the language. She blends English grammar and vocabulary from Arabic and Farsi into her Armenian, reflecting her birthplace and family heritage. The Armenian Genocide deeply influences their connection with the language, underlining the importance of its preservation as a symbol of survival. “They tried to eliminate us, we have to keep going,” a respondent stated.
Religious & Cultural Impact
The connection between the language and cultural heritage is seen as inseparable, with the language being a vital component of Armenian culture. For many, the language holds personal significance as a rare and important aspect of their identity, emphasizing the need to keep their ancestors’ language alive. It connects them to their heritage and makes them “feel more Armenian.” Respondents participate in cultural practices associated with the language, like attending Armenian church gatherings and celebrating traditional holidays, further strengthening their cultural ties. As expressed in one interview, “without the language, you can’t have the culture.”
Language Transmission and Revitalization Efforts
Respondents are determined to teach their future children Armenian as a vital part of their heritage, involving them in cultural activities and education. The drive to preserve the Armenian language spans across ages and immigration statuses among the Diaspora, highlighting a unified effort to maintain their culture and language against a backdrop of historical challenges. This emphasizes the critical role of language in upholding cultural identity.
Hebrew
As a product of tragedies in the past, diasporas, and immigration movements, there has unfortunately been a steady decline in the ability to speak Hebrew. Traditions and culture, however, remain as prevalent and important aspects of identity for Jewish individuals. Through celebrating religious holidays and ceremonial milestones, such as Yom Kippur and Bar/Bat Mitzvahs, a sense of community and cultural pride grounds individuals. Revitalization efforts for the language are a priority to continue being a connecting force for generations ahead.
Context of Language Use
Hebrew is a language that is mostly restricted to religious and ceremonial situations outside of native Orthodox individuals. Interviewees revealed that the decrease in Hebrew usage can be attributed to the language not being used in most everyday conversational respects, at least for most Jewish Americans. The limited use and context in which the language is spoken decreases the incentive to learn.
Family Background and Historical Influence
Jews have been a group disproportionally discriminated against, with devastating genocide efforts that resulted in an exponential loss of population. Considering the historical tragedies, their shared language and culture became more impactful, serving as a form of resistance to their oppressors while honoring their losses. In addition, a growing disconnect between elders results from declined spoken language. Most older family members solely speak Hebrew so communication is unfortunately challenging.
Religious and Cultural Impact
The motivation to learn Hebrew stems from the religious and cultural impact. Jewish culture, religion, and language are largely intertwined. One individual who grew up with Hebrew as her first language and self-identified as ethnically Jewish was very involved with her culture and religion and she even holds classes at the nearby Hillel teaching others how to speak and write. On the other hand, another individual who self-identified as Jewish American and strictly culturally Jewish also felt very involved in a religious sense. However, she felt disconnected and lacked a sense of belonging compared to the native speaker.
Language Transmission & Revitalization Efforts
There exists a strong motivation to pass the language down to future generations to restore a shared sense of community and heritage. Orthodox and generational Jewish Americans alike expressed the need to enact efforts to preserve the language and enrich their children with strong cultural affinity. Examples of these efforts include a push to pivot the language for more daily usage to produce greater motivation to learn or to have children formally educated through Jewish schools to both augment their appreciation for the language and build a like-minded community as well.
Discussions and Conclusions
The findings from our research on the endangered languages of Hebrew and Armenian contribute to our existing understanding of the larger phenomenon of language endangerment and revitalization. Despite facing histories of erasure like the Holocaust and the Armenian Genocide, both languages have survived and serve as crucial channels for preserving cultural heritage and identity. Speakers of Hebrew and Armenian perceive language preservation as an imperative responsibility because it serves as a link to ancestral roots. This shared commitment underscores the importance of language as a conduit for transmitting cultural traditions and values to future generations. Although this project recognizes the endangered state of these languages, we made a conscious effort to avoid unintentional consequences of universal ownership, hyperbolic valorization, and enumeration that are so common with language preservation research (Hill, 2002).
To deepen our understanding of language endangerment and shift, we plan to broaden our research scope by conducting additional interviews with individuals from diverse age groups to explore whether the observed patterns in language usage and vitality persist across different generations. Moreover, examining how attitudes and language transmission practices vary among age groups will provide valuable insights into formulating targeted preservation strategies. This future direction aligns with our goal of understanding the many factors influencing language endangerment and finding effective measures to preserve linguistic diversity for future generations.
References
Bradley, D. (2023). Language Endangerment: What it is, how to measure it and how to act. In Derhemi, E., & Moseley, C. (Eds.), Endangered Languages in the 21st Century (1st ed.) 130–136. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003260288.
Hill, J. H. (2002). “Expert Rhetorics” in Advocacy for Endangered Languages: Who Is Listening, and What Do They Hear? Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 12(2), 119–133. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43104007.
Tsunoda, T. (2006). Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Knowledge Unlatched (KU). http://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/31654.
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